Electrically conducting oligo(pyrazoles)

ABSTRACT

An electrically conducting organic oligomer comprising 4-nitro-1H-pyrazole-3-yl-amine, 4-trifluoromethyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl-amine, 4-trichloromethyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl-amine, 4-tribromomethyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl-amine, 4-ammonium-1H-pyrazol-3-yl-amine, 4-trimethylammonium-1H-pyrazol-3-yl-amine, 4-triethylammonium-1H-pyrazol-3-yl-amine, or 4-tripropylammonium-1H-pyrazol-3-yl-amine. An electrically conducting organic oligomer made from the steps of preparing an acidic aqueous solution with a monomer, preparing the acidic aqueous solution by mixing water with a monomer (3-amino-1H-pyrazole-4-carbonitrile), forming a solution preparing a second aqueous solution, mixing the acidic aqueous solution with the second aqueous solution, and allowing a reaction to proceed at about 40° C.

This application claims priority to and benefits of U.S. PatentApplication No. 61/833,163 filed on Jun. 10, 2013, and U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 14/280,002 filed on May 16, 2014 now U.S. Pat. No.9,302,995, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/013,851 filed on Feb.2, 2016, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,738,609 the entireties of each are hereinincorporated by reference.

BACKGROUND

This disclosure concerns two novel electrically conducting organicoligomers: oligo(3-amino-1H-pyrazole-4-carbonitrile) or “oligo(AP-CN)”and oligo(4-nitro-1H-pyrazole-3-yl-amine) or “oligo(AP-NO₂)”.

These novel electrically conducting organic oligomers have highlyvariable redox states and good electron-transporting properties. Ourstudies also show that the oligomers may be useful in applications suchas polymer solar cells.

These oligomers are easy to synthesize, requiring only one step pluspurification. These oligomers use inexpensive starting materials.

In photocurrent generation studies using a solar lamp and an electrolytewith a sacrificial electron donor, the oligo(AP-CN) was able to produceanodic photocurrent of magnitudes as high as 103 times that of agold-coated electrode alone, and 43.2 times that of a fullerene-coatedgold electrode. Chemical characterization of oligo(AP-CN) showed that itis a tetramer with N-linkages between repeat units. It has a highthermal stability, with an onset of thermal decomposition above 350° C.

Cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)studies of both oligomers showed that they are good electron conductorswhen in the reduced (n-doped) state. The n-dopability isquasi-reversible. This observation is further supported by circuitmodels that give low values for the resistor and Warburg circuitelements in when n-doped.

When partially or mostly oxidized (at 0 V or +1.2 V), the oligomers mayact as p-doped conductors and semiconductors. The high electronconductivity quantified by the EIS is consistent with the observationsof the large anodic (electron) photocurrents supported by theoligo(AP-CN).

Conducting polymer-based photovoltaic cells are likely to be a much lessexpensive alternative for solar energy than traditional inorganicphotovoltaics made from such materials as silicon and gallium arsenide.Inorganics require high temperature and high vacuum processingconditions, such as molecular beam epitaxy. Up to 40% of the cost of asilicon photovoltaic cell arises from the material processing. Severaltypes of conducting polymers, however, have been made to be liquidprocessable at room temperature using inexpensive methods. They can bedeposited on large sheets using ink-jet printing, screen-printing, orspin-casting. As thin films they are also mechanically flexible, able towithstand bending that would fracture a silicon panel. They are alsocolor tuneable within various ranges, so that they can be made to emitor absorb in a variety of colors.

The challenges within conducting polymer photovoltaics are lowphoton-to-current conversion efficiencies and short lifetimes. Thecurrent record power efficiency for a polymer photovoltaic is 3.5%,which is a full order of magnitude lower than the record powerefficiency for silicon photovoltaics. However, silicon photovoltaicshave benefited from about 20 years of dedicated research, whereaspolymer photovoltaics are a relatively new application.

To date, the vast majority of conducting polymers are p-dopable, thatis, they act as stable carriers of positive charge. In a photovoltaiccell they are often used as hole (cation or cation-radical)transporters.

Conducting polymers that are stable in their n-doped state are far lesscommon. In this state they are able to accommodate and conduct freeelectrons. Such polymers are of significant value in photovoltaics aselectron transporters, as well as in other applications such as organicfield effect transistors (OFETs) and organic light emitting diodes(OLEDs). A common material used as the electron transporter in polymersolar cells is C₆₀ fullerene, either pristine or derivatized in variousmanners to affect electrode morphology.

Some of the few examples of n-dopable conducting and semi-conductingpolymers are based on nitrogen-rich 5-membered conjugated heterocyclessuch as 1, 3, 4 heterodiazoles containing C, N, and S or O. A few othersare based on 1, 2, 4 triazoles having two C and three N atoms. Thelatter are n-dopable because the ring is electron deficient and can thusbe reduced into a semi-stable, electron conducting form.

The electron deficiency also results in another phenomenon—the synthesisof homopolymeric poly(triazoles) is not generally achievable bypolymerization of monomeric triazole. Thus, other approaches must beused. For example, one may construct linear polyhydrazides having—CR—CR—NH—NH— repeating sequences, and then undertake ring-formationmetathesis reactions that yield the triazole repeat unit.

The synthesis of these types of prior art polymers usually requires manysteps, often involving the complex ring-closing reactions mentionedabove.

Another, much less explored approach to the synthesis of n-dopableconducting polymers involves oxidative polymerization or oligomerizationof nitrogen-rich pyrazoles with primary amines. This is done in a mannersimilar to the synthesis of polyaniline, wherein the amine group forms abridge between each polymer repeat unit. One example,oligo(3-amino-1,2,4 triazole), has been synthesized and characterized asa semiconductor and as a anticorrosive for copper. This material was notn-dopable to a stable state, however, and is not an effective electronacceptor.

These oligomers disclosed herein are expected to have a significantmilitary and commercial interest. There is a necessity for developingrenewable energy sources given that world petroleum production isexpected to peak within the next few years. Solar power is clean,readily available, and renewable. Silicon-based solar cells areconsidered to be the state of the art at present and have a relativelyhigh efficiency, but they are expensive to manufacture.

Polymer-based solar cells are less expensive but the prior artefficiencies are low. When incorporated into these types of cells, theoligomers herein disclosed will enable increases in efficiency. This isbecause of the high electron transport rates of the oligomers and theirversatile redox behavior.

The ease of synthesis of these currently disclosed oligomers and lowcost of starting materials are further commercial advantages. Theseattributes also allow derivatives of the material to be produced andinvestigated easily and quickly.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

This disclosure concerns two novel electrically conducting organicoligomers: oligo(3-amino-1H-pyrazole-4-carbonitrile) or “oligo(AP-CN)”and oligo(4-nitro-1H-pyrazole-3-yl-amine) or “oligo(AP-NO₂)”.

This disclosure concerns the development of a novel electricallyconducting organic oligomer or polymer that has variable redox statesand good electron-transporting properties, that may be useful inapplications such as polymer solar cells. The oligomer or polymer iseasy to synthesize (in few steps) and uses inexpensive startingmaterials.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 illustrates Poly(3-amino-1H-pyrazole-4-carbonitrile),“oligo(AP-CN)”, reduced and oxidized states.

FIG. 2 illustrates FTIR spectrum of oligo(AP-CN).

FIG. 3 illustrates ¹³C NMR (reference DMF-d7) of oligo(AP-CN), andproposed signal assignments for the numbered carbons.

FIG. 4 illustrates ¹³C NMR estimation using ChemDraw™ software.

FIG. 5 illustrates Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of oligo(AP-CN).

FIG. 6 illustrates Cyclic voltammetry of oligo(AP-CN), showing itsreduction and oxidation processes. The Inset illustrates a linear plotof current vs. scan rate.

FIG. 7 illustrates Synthesis of Oligo(AP-CN).

FIG. 8 illustrates Transient photocurrents generated by gold alone(red), oligo(AP-CN)/gold (blue), and fullerene/gold (brown). The samplewas immersed in phosphate buffer electrolyte pH 7.1.

FIG. 9 illustrates Transient photocurrents generated by gold alone(red), oligo(AP-CN)/gold (blue), and fullerene/gold (brown). The samplewas immersed in phosphate buffer electrolyte pH 7.1 containing 100 mMtriethanolamine (TEOA), a photoactive electron donor.

FIG. 10 illustrates Transient photocurrents generated byoligo(AP-CN)/gold (blue), and fullerene/gold (brown). The sample wasimmersed in phosphate buffer electrolyte pH 7.1 and held at +0.9 V vs.Ag/AgCl. No TEOA was present.

FIG. 11 illustrates Transient photocurrents generated byoligo(AP-CN)/gold (blue), and fullerene/gold (brown). The sample wasimmersed in phosphate buffer electrolyte pH 7.1 and held at +0.9 V vs.Ag/AgCl. TEOA was present in this case.

FIG. 12 illustrates Ratios of the magnitudes of the photocurrents foreach material, obtained by integrating the peaks in FIGS. 7-11 andaveraging over each multistep cycle.

FIG. 13 illustrates (a) 4-nitro-1H-pyrazole-3-yl-amine and (b)oligo(AP-NO₂).

FIG. 14 illustrates a Nyquist plot for oligo(AP-CN) held at −1.2 V vs.Ag wire quasi-reference. Red circles=data, blue line=circuit fit. Fiterror=2.1%.

FIG. 15 illustrates a Nyquist plot for oligo(AP-CN) held at 0 V vs. Agwire quasi-reference. Error=1.7%.

FIG. 16 illustrates a Nyquist plot, oligo(AP-CN) held at −1.2 V vs. Agwire quasi-reference. Error=1.7%.

FIG. 17 illustrates a Nyquist plot for oligo(AP-NO₂) held at −1.2 V vs.Ag wire quasi-reference. Red circles=data, blue line=circuit fit.Error=1.8%

FIG. 18 illustrates a Nyquist plot, oligo(AP-NO₂) held at 0 V vs. Agwire quasi-reference. Error=1.7%.

FIG. 19 illustrates a Nyquist plot, oligo(AP-NO₂) held at +1.2 V vs. Agwire quasi-reference. Error=3.2%.

FIG. 20 illustrates equivalent circuits for the oligomers at −1.2 V(top) and at 0 V or +1.2 V (bottom).

FIG. 21 illustrates a structure (a), electrical resistances (b) andWarburg coefficients (diffusion resistances) of oligo(AP-CN) (c).Percent error for the circuit elements ranges from 1.7% to 4.3%.

FIG. 22 illustrates a structure (a), electrical resistances (b) andWarburg coefficients (diffusion resistances) of oligo(AP-CN) (c).Percent error for the circuit elements ranges from 1.7% to 3.2%.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

This disclosure concerns two novel electrically conducting organicoligomers: oligo(3-amino-1H-pyrazole-4-carbonitrile) or “oligo(AP-CN)”and oligo(4-nitro-1H-pyrazole-3-yl-amine) or “oligo(AP-NO₂)”.

These novel electrically conducting organic oligomers have highlyvariable redox states and good electron-transporting properties. Ourstudies also show that the oligomers may be useful in applications suchas polymer solar cells.

These oligomers are easy to synthesize, requiring only one step pluspurification. These oligomers use inexpensive starting materials.

In photocurrent generation studies using a solar lamp and an electrolytewith a sacrificial electron donor, the oligo(AP-CN) was able to produceanodic photocurrent of magnitudes as high as 103 times that of agold-coated electrode alone, and 43.2 times that of a fullerene-coatedgold electrode. Chemical characterization of oligo(AP-CN) showed that itis a tetramer with N-linkages between repeat units. It has a highthermal stability, with an onset of thermal decomposition above 350° C.

Cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)studies of both oligomers showed that they are good electron conductorswhen in the reduced (n-doped) state. The n-dopability isquasi-reversible. This observation is further supported by circuitmodels that give low values for the resistor and Warburg circuitelements in when n-doped.

When partially or mostly oxidized (at 0 V or +1.2 V), the oligomers mayact as p-doped conductors and semiconductors. The high electronconductivity quantified by the EIS is consistent with the observationsof the large anodic (electron) photocurrents supported by theoligo(AP-CN).

This disclosure concerns the development of a novel electricallyconducting organic oligomer or polymer that has variable redox statesand good electron-transporting properties, that may be useful inapplications such as polymer solar cells. It is desired that theoligomer or polymer be easy to synthesize (in few steps) and requireinexpensive starting materials.

Herein we report the synthesis and electrochemical characterization ofnew conjugated conducting oligomers:oligo(3-amino-1H-pyrazole-4-carbonitrile) or “oligo(AP-CN)” andoligo(4-nitro-1H-pyrazole-3-yl-amine) or “oligo(AP-NO₂)”.

These oligomers contain nitrogen and carbon in the ratios of 1:1 and4:3, respectively. Electrochemical studies show that the materials canadopt an n-doped state (they are good electron acceptors) and may beable to adopt a p-doped state as well.

Oligo(AP-CN)

For oligo(AP-CN), the reduced and partially oxidized forms of thematerial are shown in FIG. 1. The material is oligomerized at about 40°C. in a straight-forward one-step process from the starting monomer byusing a stoichiometric amount of sodium persulfate in acidic solution(pH=0.5-1.0).

As the oligomerization proceeds some of the material aggregates(pi-stacking) and precipitates from solution. When the reaction iscomplete the rest of the oligo(AP-CN) can be readily precipitated fromthe solution by raising the pH to 7.0 or higher.

The oligomer is brick-red when precipitated at pH 7.1 and is dark greenwhen precipitated at pH 10.0. It is soluble in DMF and pyridine, and thematerial precipitated at pH 7.1 shows strong fluorescence (λ_(max)=525nm) when subjected to an excitation wavelength of 355 nm in DMF.UV-visible data shows that oligo(AP-CN) has a maximum absorption at 330nm at pH 7.1.

Mass spectral data indicates that it is a tetramer of MW 426, within-source fragmentation yielding a negatively-charged precursor ion of385 Da. Using MS-MS, this was fragmented, giving the negative productions of m/z 353, 265, 212, 132 and 107 Da, which were predicted from theoligo(AP-CN) chemical structure. The 107 Da was itself subjected toMS-MS, giving additional negative product ions of m/z 90, 65, 52, and 26Da, also predicted from the chemical structure.

FTIR data (FIG. 2) shows strong bands characteristic of secondary amines(N—H at 3317 and 3139 cm⁻¹), C═N/C═C conjugation (1670 cm⁻¹), andcarbonitrile (the cyano group) in conjugation (2236 and 2219 cm⁻¹). Thusthe cyano group remains intact as the oligomer forms.

The data also shows aromatic C═C bonds at 1406 cm⁻¹, C—N sigma bonds(1113 cm⁻¹), and the N—H sigma bond wag (616 cm⁻¹).

Data for the monomer shows primary amine bands that are much strongerthan those of the oligomer, which is expected since it forms linkageswith the neighboring pyrazole group as the oligomerization proceeds.

In the monomer the FTIR data shows that the carbonitrile is presentwithout conjugation (2245 cm⁻¹). ¹³C NMR spectra (FIG. 3) shows 8 mainsignals, several of which correspond closely (within a few ppm) to thatof software predictions (FIG. 4) for the structure. The discrepanciesbetween software prediction and NMR data itself may arise from positivecharges and variable protonation patterns in the oligomer.

Thermogravimetric studies (FIG. 5) show that the oligo(AP-CN) isthermally stable under nitrogen in the temperature range 25° C. to 360°C. (5° C./min ramp), with virtually no mass loss occurring in thisrange, except for water evaporation.

The oligomer undergoes gradual thermal breakdown in the range 360° C. to600° C., losing ˜30% of its mass in this range.

The high thermal stability allows it to be suitable for virtually anysolar cell application.

Electrochemically, thin films of the oligo(AP-CN) show reversible pairsof oxidation and reduction peaks at approximately +0.8 V and −1.2 V,respectively (vs. Ag wire quasi-reference, electrolyte 100 mMtetrabutylammonium hexafluorophosphate in acetonitrile, sparged anddessicated) (FIG. 6).

The plot of peak current vs. scan rate is linear, (r²=0.9992),indicating that the reduction process is quasi-reversible. The reductionprocess results in a relatively very large peak current at −1.2 V,suggesting that the oligo(AP-CN) is an effective electron transporter.

The oligomer is electrically conductive, having resistances that aresignificantly lower than those reported for poly(3-amino-1,2,4 triazole)by Mert et al and Lammana et al.

Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy studies (FIGS. 13-21) showed thatthe oligomer can be considered to be a good electron conductor when inthe reduced (n-doped) state. When partially or mostly oxidized (at 0 Vor +1.2 V), the oligomer conductivity varies in a complex manner thatappears to depend on location in the thin film (interfacial region orbulk).

Most conducting polymers are p-dopable (hole transporting) only, thatis, they are stable charge carriers only when in a cationic state.

Oligo(AP-CN) is unusual in that as a homooligomer it can adopt both astable n-doped (anionic) state, as shown by the reversible redoxbehaviors. It may be able to adopt a stable p-doped state as well. Thusit should be of interest to the electronics materials community.

Also, the subunit 3-aminopyrazole has been used in strategies forsupramolecular self-assembly and polypeptide (amyloid) β-sheetstabilization.

The unusual properties of the oligomer probably arise from the multiplepolar functionalities present in the repeat units.

Another desirable attribute of the oligo(AP-CN) is its simple synthesisand the low cost of the monomer. The monomer compound can be purchasedin bulk for ˜$2.00/gram (AK Scientific, Inc., Combi-Blocks, Inc.) Incontrast, the cost of C₆₀ fullerene, a common electron transportingmaterial in polymer solar cells, is ˜$20.00/gram in bulk (BuckyUSA).

In the first oligo(AP-CN) synthesis the overall yield was ˜60%, this canbe improved by varying the reaction conditions, for example, usinglonger reaction times, higher temperatures, sequential removal ofproduct, etc.

Example 1

Synthesis of Oligo(AP-CN)

The oligomer was synthesized by preparing an acidic aqueous solution(“A”) with monomer and a second aqueous solution (“B”) with the sodiumpersulfate oxidant.

The two solutions were then mixed, and the reaction was allowed toproceed overnight at 40° C. (FIG. 7).

Solution A was prepared using a solution of 1.6 wt % HCl in DI water,and adding monomer (3-amino-1H-pyrazole-4-carbonitrile) in theappropriate amount to form a 0.3 M solution. This corresponded to ˜40 mgmonomer/ml solution.

Solution B was prepared by adding ammonium persulfate (APS) to DI waterin the amount to form a 0.44 M solution, corresponding to ˜100 mg APS/mlsolution.

The scale of the reaction was such that 1.6 g of monomer was used, in atotal of 80 ml reaction volume. As the reaction proceeded with vigorousstirring at 40° C., after 1 hr it was assayed using TLC (solvent 72:10:4ethyl acetate:methanol:water), which showed that ˜15% of the monomer hadconverted to polymer. The reaction was allowed to proceed overnight at40° C. By the next day, the mixture had turned brownish-grey and its pHwas 1.0.

Aqueous sodium hydroxide solution was used to raise the pH of aliquotsfrom the reaction mixture. When the pH reached 7.1, a solid precipitateformed, which was brick red. In a second aliquot, the pH was raised to8.1 and the solution became greenish.

Centrifugation and passive precipitation gave two layers of solid—onedark green (the top layer) and one grey (the lower layer). Some yellowcolor remained in solution. Acetone extract of the green solid turnedorange, possibly because of dissolved short oligomers. The green solidwas generally insoluble in acetonitrile, methanol, methylene chloride,and ethyl acetate. It was, however, very soluble in DMF and gave abright blue-green solution. The red solid was also found to be solublein DMF and pyridine as well. The grey solid was soluble in methylenechloride.

The red and green solids were further purified by adding excess DI waterand heating the mixture at 75° C. for 1 hour, then centrifuging themixture and decanting the water layer, and then drying the oligo(AP-CN)overnight under vacuum at 75° C. The red and green forms of theoligomers were then characterized as described above, and theirfluorescence was characterized as a function of excitation wavelength.

Oligo(AP-CN) Photocurrent Studies

In preparation for the photocurrent studies, 1.5 mg of the redoligo(AP-CN) was dissolved in 50 microliters DMF, and a 5 microliterdroplet (0.5 cm diameter) was carefully deposited on gold-coated glass.The droplet was dried for 3 hrs at 75° C., forming a thin film. A secondidentical droplet was added on top of the film and also permitted to dryin the same manner.

In this way a mass of 0.3 mg oligomer was deposited on the coated glass.

To prepare the C₆₀ fullerene control, 1.5 mg fullerene was dissolved in50 microliters o-dichlorobenzene and droplets were dried onto the coatedglass as described for the oligomer. Since fullerene is often used as anelectron transporter in polymer solar cells, it was chosen as a controlhere.

The prepared gold-coated supports were mounted into a Teflon photocell,and electrolyte solution was prepared using 100 mM sodium phosphatebuffer, pH 7.1. In some cases, a sacrificial electron donor,triethanolamine, was also added at a concentration of 100 mM. Theelectrolyte was added to the photocell, and the working electrode wasclamped to the gold-coated substrate, and the counter- and referenceelectrodes (Pt wire and Ag/AgCl, respectively) were immersed in theelectrolyte.

To begin the photocurrent measurements the current was monitored as afunction of time. The light source (a 145 W Xe lamp) was activated andallowed to shine through the electrolyte and impinge directly on thesample in the photocell—which was either the oligo(AP-CN) on the goldsurface, the fullerene on the gold surface, or the bare gold surface byitself—and the resulting photocurrent was recorded. During theseexperiments the sample was held at either at zero voltage or at positive0.90 V.

FIG. 8 shows the photocurrents generated by gold alone (red),oligo(AP-CN)/gold (blue), and fullerene/gold (brown) as a function offour 50-second illumination steps alternating with four 50-secondperiods with no illumination. The aqueous electrolyte was at pH 7.1,with no TEOA electron donor present.

The oligo(AP-CN) clearly has a much higher photocurrent than either thegold alone or the fullerene/gold.

Currents were measured relative to the lamp-off state baseline. Theoligomer is able to generate peak currents of as high as nearly 1microamp. The current in the oligomer is created nearly instantaneously,and then decays rapidly indicating that the photooxidation processes inthe polymer are not immediately reversible. The bare gold surfacegenerates virtually no photocurrent, and the fullerene yields only avery low one in later cycles.

FIG. 9 shows the photocurrents generated by gold alone (red),oligo(AP-CN)/gold (blue), and fullerene/gold (brown).

The sample was immersed in phosphate buffer electrolyte pH 7.1containing 100 mM triethanolamine (TEOA), a photoactive electron donor.The same types of illumination steps used previously were used again.

Again, the oligomer/gold clearly has a much higher photocurrent thaneither the gold alone or the fullerene/gold, and is able to generate apeak current of ˜0.8 microamps. Photooxidation of both the oligo(AP-CN)and the TEOA in solution may allow the latter to continuously regeneratethe valence of the oligomer. In this manner the oligo(AP-CN) may be ableto act as both an electron donor and an electron transporter.

FIG. 10 shows the photocurrents generated by oligo(AP-CN)/gold (blue),and fullerene/gold (brown). The sample was immersed in phosphate bufferelectrolyte pH 7.1 and held at +0.9 V vs. Ag/AgCl. No TEOA was presentin this case. The same types of illumination steps used previously wereused again.

Again, the oligomer/gold clearly has a much higher photocurrent than thefullerene/gold, and is able to generate a peak current of ˜23 microamps.The oligomer current shows a saw tooth pattern, suggesting exponentialdecay processes dominated by diffusion or double-layer charge formation.

FIG. 11 shows the photocurrents generated by oligo(AP-CN)/gold (blue),and fullerene/gold (brown). The sample was immersed in phosphate bufferelectrolyte pH 7.1 and held at +0.9 V vs. Ag/AgCl. TEOA was present inthis case. The same types of illumination steps used previously wereused again.

The oligomer/gold clearly has a dramatically higher photocurrent thaneither the gold alone or the fullerene/gold, and is able to generate areproducible peak current of ˜55 microamps, the relative highest so far.

The oligomer current again shows a saw tooth pattern, suggestingexponential decay processes dominated by diffusion or double-layercharge formation. The first cycle of the oligo(AP-CN) appears distorted,probably because of the high background current present then.

FIG. 12 gives the ratios of the magnitudes of the photocurrents for eachmaterial, obtained by integrating the peaks in FIGS. 7-11 and averagingover each multistep cycle. In the y-axis label, “control” denotes eitherthe bare gold or fullerene/gold.

Oligo(AP-CN)/gold can generate or transport currents at levels that are3.3 to 103 times larger than those attainable by the bare gold, and thatare 8.0 to 42.3 times larger than those attainable by thefullerene/gold. At 0 volts without TEOA electron donor, the bare goldgenerates or carries almost no photocurrent.

In contrast, the oligomer is clearly photoactive and the fullereneappears to be slightly photoactive. Both are evidently oxidized bylight, and transfer electrons to the gold layer underneath.

However, the oligomer accomplishes this in a much better-defined process(FIG. 8) that shows nearly instantaneous current generation uponirradiation (followed by an exponential decay), and gives current at alevel that is 3.3 times higher. The fullerene-generated current isformed in a process that is much less clearly defined or consistent. At0 volts with TEOA electron donor, the bare gold generates or carries avery small amount of photocurrent (FIG. 9).

Again, the oligomer is definitely photoactive, again showing nearlyinstantaneous current generation upon irradiation with steadymaintenance over the irradiation time, giving currents that are 34-foldand 11 fold times higher than the bare gold and fullerene/gold,respectively. The fullerene-generated current is again formed in aprocess that is much less clearly defined or consistent. At +0.9 voltswith no TEOA electron donor (FIG. 10) the oligomer is again definitelyphotoactive, this time showing a positive exponential current generationupon irradiation with a negative exponential response when theillumination is stopped. Its photocurrent is 8-fold (+0.9 V, no TEOA)and 42.3-fold (+0.9 V, TEOA) higher than the fullerene/gold,respectively. When immersed in electrolyte, the bare gold surface beganto oxidize when subjected to +0.9 V so it was not used as a comparisonhere. For both the oligo(AP-CN) and C60 fullerene materials, both thebackground currents and photocurrents are much higher than in the caseswith no applied voltage.

Example 2

Synthesis of Oligo(AP-NO₂)

The oligomerization chemistry used for the formation of3-amino-1H-pyrazole-4-carbonitrile was extended to a second monomer,4-nitro-1H-pyrazole-3-yl-amine, as illustrated in FIG. 12(a).

Here, the carbonitrile is replaced by a nitro group. This monomer wassynthesized in-house.

The material is oligomerized at 40° C. in a straight-forward one-stepprocess corresponding to that used above for oligo(AP-CN).

Electrochemical studies show that this material(oligo(4-nitro-1H-pyrazole-3-yl-amine), or “oligo(AP-NO₂)”) can adopt ann-doped state (and a p-doped state), as can oligo(AP-CN), as discussedbelow.

Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy

For electrochemical characterization of both oligomers we usedelectrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), which measures theelectronic response of the material as it is subjected to alternatingcurrents of variable frequencies ranging from MHz to sub-Hz. This methodis quite powerful in that it can reveal material processes that have awide range of time constants, and simultaneously provide measurements ofvarious types of resistances, capacitive effects, inductive effects,material heterogeneity, ion diffusivities in the bulk of the material,and other phenomena.

For both oligomers, the equivalent circuit models (FIG. 19) wereconstructed using resistors, capacitors, Warburg elements, and constantphase elements. The latter two types of elements will be defined below.Each model has a certain error associated with it. For the oligo(AP-CN),the percentage error ranged from 1.7% to 4.3%; for the oligo(AP-NO₂), itranged from 1.7% to 3.2%. The numerical values for the elements in thecircuit models are given in Table 1.

Each oligomer has 3 Nyquist plots describing it, one for each voltageinvestigated (−1.2 V, 0 V, +1.2 V). These are presented in FIGS. 14-19.The Nyquist diagram represents the capacitive component of the impedance(−Z″) plotted versus the resistive component (Z′).

In the plots, the measured impedance response data of the material isrepresented as red circles and the impedance of the chosen circuit modelis represented as a blue trace. FIGS. 14-15 give the Nyquist plots foroligo(AP-CN), FIGS. 17-19 give them for oligo(AP-NO₂).

The equivalent circuits (FIG. 19) contain an initial resistor thataccounts for electrolyte resistance (R_(elyte)), followed sequentiallyby three parallel segments. The first segment contains a capacitor inparallel with an interfacial charge-transfer resistance R_(int1).

For both oligomers, this resistance is relatively low, generally in theΩ to few kΩ range (FIG. 20, Table 1), with the highest value for theoligo(AP-CN) when the material is held at +1.2 V. The capacitances inthe first segment are all relatively small, ranging from 10⁻⁵ to 10⁻⁷Farads (F).

The second parallel segment contains a resistor R_(bulk) in parallelwith a capacitor C_(bulk). The subscript bulk denotes the inner regionof the oligomer film, away from the interfaces. In this region, R_(bulk)is relatively very low for the oligo(AP-CN) at −1.2 V (1440Ω) and +1.2 V(42Ω).

This is one indication that the oligomer is able to adopt both ann-doped (reduced) and p-doped (oxidized) states. However, R_(bulk) ismuch higher at 0 V (5.33×10⁴Ω), because in that state the material maycontain mixtures of doping conditions that do not conduct eithernegative or positive charges effectively. The situation is different,however, for the oligo(AP-NO₂) for which R_(bulk) is low at −1.2 V(2382Ω) and 0 V (521Ω), but relatively high at +1.2 V (4.1×10⁴Ω). Thisoligomer appears to switch into a rather more semi-conducting vs.conducting state at oxidizing voltages, whereas oligo(AP-CN) shows thisbehavior at 0 V.

The R_(bulk) is in series with a Warburg impedance W_(bulk), whichrepresents the resistance that is encountered by long range diffusionprocesses in this inner region. For both the oligo(AP-CN) and theoligo(AP-NO₂), the magnitude of W is much smaller when the material isheld at −1.2 V and +1.2 V, versus when at 0 V. Its smallest values are0.76 and 447 Ωsec^(−0.5) for the oligo(AP-CN) and oligo(AP-NO₂),respectively, at −1.2 V. This is probably because the applied voltage isincreasing charge diffusion rates. It may also be because in the reducedstate the electron-rich oligomer chains repel one another, causing thenanoporosity to increase and permit rapid diffusion. However, thelargest values are 1.54×10⁵ Ωsec^(−0.5) and 5.48×10⁴ Ωsec^(−0.5) for thetwo films when at 0 V. This may occur because in the neutral state theoligomers can pi-stack to increase the density of the material and thusslow diffusion. At +1.2 V, the W_(bulk) values decrease substantially to7.80×10³ Ωsec^(−0.5) and 1.70×10⁴ Ωsec^(−0.5), respectively. As above,this is probably because the applied voltage is increasing chargediffusion rates. It may also be because in the oxidized state theoligomers may enter a quinoid rigid-rod (vs. aromatic flexible rod)form, which can be conductible to a higher nanoporosity and thus rapiddiffusion. Alternatively, simple like-charge repulsion between oligomerchains may result in a higher nanoporosity. For both oligomers, thecapacitance values are small, in the range 10⁻⁶ to 10⁻⁷ F.

The third parallel circuit segment contains a resistor R_(int2) inparallel with either a capacitor C_(int2), or a constant phase element(CPE). The subscript “int2” designates the interface between theoligomer layer and the electrode (glassy carbon). CPEs are usedextensively in equivalent circuit models. They can represent distributed(heterogeneous) surface reactivity or morphology, roughness or fractalgeometry, or material porosity. The CPE can also model a simpleelectrical double layer. When the oligomers are at −1.2 V, a CPE wasused in the circuit model because it gave the best fit to the data. Theunits for a CPE are Ω⁻¹ s^(n) where 0<n<1. For the oligomers at 0 V and+1.2 V, a capacitor is used since it gave the best fit.

The R_(int2) values for the oligo(AP-CN) are relatively low at allvoltages (1032Ω, 61Ω, and 2266Ω for −1.2 V, 0 V and +1.2 V). Thissuggests that the oligomer that is very near the carbon electrode may beorganized in some fashion as to give a high charge mobility for bothelectrons and positively-charged centers. The surface of the glassycarbon may assist in short and long-range ordering processes. For theoligo(AP-NO₂), the R_(int2) values are relatively low at −1.2 V and +1.2V (4950Ω and 1892Ω). However, the resistance is much higher at 0 V(3.82×10⁴Ω). This may be because the oligomer near the electrode surfacemay be organized in a fashion that lowers its conductivity, unless apotential is applied.

The R_(int2) is in series with a Warburg impedance W_(int2), whichrepresents the resistance that is encountered by long range diffusionprocesses in this interfacial region. For both the oligo(AP-CN) and theoligo(AP-NO₂), the magnitude of W_(int2) is much smaller when thematerial is held at −1.2 V and +1.2 V, versus when at 0 V. Its smallestvalues are 0.78 and 0.74 Ωsec^(−0.5) for the oligo(AP-CN) andoligo(AP-NO₂), respectively, at −1.2 V. As was the case for W_(int1),this is probably because the applied voltage is increasing chargediffusion rates. Also, in a trend similar to that of W_(int1), thelargest values (˜1×10⁵ Ωsec^(−0.5)) occur when the oligomers are at 0 V,probably because pi-stacking increases the density of the material. At+1.2 V, the values decrease to 2.33 and 3.38×10⁴ Ωsec^(−0.5) likely forthe same reasons mentioned above for W_(int1).

Both oligomers show capacitances in the relatively low range of ˜10⁻⁶ to10⁻⁷ F. Thus, most of the observed impedance arises from the resistorand Warburg elements. For both materials at −1.2 V, it is of interestthat the CPE models the second interface more closely than does acapacitor. The CPEs have a value of 1.01×10⁻⁴ to 1.4×10⁻⁴ Ω⁻¹ s^(n),which may indicate that both materials experience an increasedheterogeneity when the reducing voltage is applied.

From this discussion, one can conclude that both oligomers are can beconsidered to be good electron conductors when in the reduced (n-doped)state. This is evidenced by the low values for the R and W circuitelements. When partially or mostly oxidized (at 0 V or +1.2 V), theoligomer conductivity varies in a complex manner that appears to dependon location (interfacial region or bulk). The high electron conductivityquantified by the EIS is consistent with the observations of the largephotocurrents supported by the oligo(AP-CN).

TABLE 1 Circuit elements and values. Oligo(AP-CN) Oligo(AP-NO₂) −1.2 V 0V +1.2 V −1.2 V 0 V +1.2 V R_(int1) (Ω) 741 25 1.53 × 10⁴  3167 40 50.8R_(bulk) (Ω) 1440 5.33 × 10⁴ 42 2382 521 4.09 × 10⁴  R_(int2) (Ω) 103261 2266 4950 3.82 × 10⁴  1892 W_(bulk)(Ωsec^(−0.5)) 447 1.54 × 10⁵  77970.759 5.48 × 10⁴  1.70 × 10⁴  W_(int2) (Ωsec^(−0.5)) 0.777 6.67 × 10⁴ 2.33 × 10⁴  0.748 1.87 × 10⁵  3.38 × 10⁴  C_(int1) (F) 8.66 × 10⁻⁶ 6.20× 10⁻⁷ 1.49 × 10⁻⁵ 5.03 × 10⁻⁶ 4.69 × 10⁻⁷ 6.62 × 10⁻⁷ C_(bulk) (F) 9.40× 10⁻⁷ 2.81 × 10⁻⁶ 1.20 × 10⁻⁷ 8.85 × 10⁻⁷ 4.87 × 10⁻⁷ 8.12 × 10⁻⁶C_(int2) (F) — 4.26 × 10⁻⁷ 8.54 × 10⁻⁷ — 1.89 × 10⁻⁶ 6.89 × 10⁻⁷ Q(Ω⁻¹s^(n)) 1.19 × 10⁻⁴ — 1.01 × 10⁻⁴ — Fit error 2.1% 1.7% 4.3% 1.8%1.7% 3.2%

The oligomers are highly effective electron transporters (n-dopable).There are relatively few other types of organic, electrically conductingoligomers that have this capability. The oligomers are also bep-dopable, that is, they are also able to transport “holes”(positively-charged centers). They are easy to synthesize, and useinexpensive starting materials. They have a high thermal stability andare thus suitable for incorporation into solar cells. They are solublein common polar organic solvents and are thus easily processable.

Both oligomers have an electron-withdrawing group at the 4-position ofthe pyrazole ring. Oligo(AP-CN) has a carbonitrile group (C-triplebond-N) located there, whereas oligo(AP-NO₂) has a nitro group (NO₂).Other types of electron-withdrawing groups (such as trifluoromethyl,perfluoroalkane, halogen, aldehyde, ketone, ester, carboxylate,sulfonate, ammonium, quaternary amine) can be introduced there, and thatoligomers formed from the resulting monomer have properties similar tooligo(AP-CN) and oligo(NO₂).

Many modifications and variations of the present invention are possiblein light of the above teachings. It is therefore to be understood thatthe claimed invention may be practiced otherwise than as specificallydescribed. Any reference to claim elements in the singular, e.g., usingthe articles “a,” “an,” “the,” or “said” is not construed as limitingthe element to the singular.

What we claim is:
 1. An electrically conducting organic oligomercomprising 4-nitro-1H-pyrazole-3-yl-amine,4-trifluoromethyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl-amine,4-trichloromethyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl-amine,4-tribromomethyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl-amine,4-ammonium-1H-pyrazol-3-yl-amine,4-trimethylammonium-1H-pyrazol-3-yl-amine,4-triethylammonium-1H-pyrazol-3-yl-amine, or4-tripropylammonium-1H-pyrazol-3-yl-amine.